Despite the dark events of war and religious murders, Elizabeth's reign is best remembered for extraordinary achievements.

Introduction
Many historians agree that Elizabeth I was the most successful monarch ever to sit on the English throne. Her reign, known in English history as the Elizabethan period, was an era of great accomplishment in England. It was a heroic age of exploration. Francis Drake sailed around the world, Martin Frobisher voyaged to the Arctic regions, and Walter Raleigh helped colonize America. Poets and dramatists like William Shakespeare and Edmund Spenser helped create the "Golden Age" of English literature. But it was Elizabeth herself who vastly changed England's standing among European nations. When she came to the throne England was a poor, remote island that was likely to become the next possession of the growing empire of Spain. By the time she died England had become a power in Europe, and its navy ruled the seas.

Receives complete education
Elizabeth was born in 1533 in Greenwich Palace on the Thames River. Her father was the legendary king Henry VIII and her mother was Anne Boleyn, Henry's second wife. The king (who eventually married six times) was obsessed with producing a son and heir. When Anne Boleyn couldn't give him one, he had her beheaded. Elizabeth, who was two years old at the time of her mother's death, was raised by four stepmothers. She received her education under the famous scholar and humanist Roger Ascham. Under his guidance, Elizabeth studied Greek and Roman classics, read history and theology, and learned both classical and modern languages. Extremely intelligent, she reportedly spoke six languages better than English during her youth.

When Henry VIII died in 1547, Elizabeth's half-brother became King Edward VI. But he died only six years later, and Elizabeth's older half-sister Mary Tudor (daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon) came to the throne. Mary, who was Catholic, earned the nickname "Bloody Mary" for burning many Protestants at the stake. When rebels wanted to place the Protestant Elizabeth on the throne, Mary had her arrested and sent to the Tower of London. She remained imprisoned for five years until Mary, near death, named Elizabeth her successor. On March 17, 1558, Elizabeth took the throne.

Catholics plot against Elizabeth
Elizabeth initially did not want to face the heated conflict between Catholics and Protestants in England. But Mary Stuart forced her to do so. The Catholic Mary, queen of Scotland, was the grandniece of Henry VII and next in line to the throne. Accused of murdering her second husband, Henry Stewart Darnley, Mary fled to England to escape a rebellion in Scotland. Many European and English Catholics plotted to put her on the English throne. To protect her crown, Elizabeth had her cousin Mary placed under house arrest in 1567.

Meanwhile, Elizabeth's throne was threatened from outside forces. Philip II, who became ruler of Spain and its empire in 1556, sought to control the world. England and many other European countries were jealous of Spain's riches, especially in the New World. Elizabeth allowed her seamen to raid Spanish ships on the high seas. Between 1577 and 1580, Francis Drake sailed around the world, becoming the first man after Ferdinand Magellan to do so. On his trip, he ravaged Spanish settlements in South America, returning to England with £1,000,000 in treasure. Elizabeth knighted him aboard his ship, the Golden Hind, worsening already tense relations between Protestant England and Catholic Spain.

During the 1580s, Elizabeth began to harshly persecute Catholics in England. She sent hundreds to their deaths. Many felt the horrors of the wrack, the manacles, and the Scavenger's Daughter. This last device was an iron hoop that brought a victim's hands, head, and feet together into a tight ball until he or she was crushed. Part of the reason for this persecution was a series of Catholic plots to murder Elizabeth and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. Finally, in 1586, Mary's part in these plots was proven. She was beheaded the following February.

England battles Spanish Armada
Mary's death was the final blow to English-Spanish relations. Philip II declared war. In July 1588, a huge navy fleet — the Spanish Armada — set sail for England. The English navy, led by Francis Drake and Martin Frobisher, rose to meet the armada in a nine-day battle. The smaller, quicker English ships easily outmaneuvered the Spanish galleons, but could not come close enough to attack. The Spaniards, however, made the mistake one night of anchoring their entire fleet, and the English sent a squadron of flaming ships into the anchored vessels. Frightened, the armada cut its lines and fled into open water. Chased by the English, the Spaniards tried to sail north around the British Isles. But storm after storm pounded the armada and nearly half the fleet was lost. The war continued for 15 years, but the Spaniards could not overcome the English. When Elizabeth died in 1603, Philip's dream of making England into a Catholic province ended.

Despite the dark events of war and religious murders, Elizabeth's reign is best remembered for extraordinary achievements. She believed it was her divine mission to lead England, and under her direction, the country became strong and unified. Commerce and industry prospered. The queen herself was an expert musician and her court was the cultural center of its day. Some of the great writers in English literature — Edmund Spenser, Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare — appeared during her reign. Spenser's masterpiece, The Fairie Queen, is even dedicated to her.

The Tudor family line of rulers, begun in 1485 with Henry VII, ended with Elizabeth's death. Her crown was taken by James I, son of Mary Stuart.

HUMANISM
The Renaissance (French for "rebirth") began in Italy in the late fourteenth century and spread through Europe by the seventeenth century. It was a period of great artistic achievement, with a rediscovery of the art and literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans. A philosophy that developed during this period was called Humanism. It opposed the medieval view that what mattered most in life was what happened to the soul after death. Humanists were more concerned with human values than spiritual ones. They turned away from the supernatural, focusing instead on the beauty and perfection they saw in the natural world and in the individual person. Humanists believed that through artistic and intellectual achievements a perfect life could be enjoyed in this world.
FURTHER READING
Hanff, Helene, Queen of England: The Story of Elizabeth I, Doubleday, 1969.
MacCaffrey, Wallace T., Elizabeth I, Arnold, 1993.
Somerset, Anne, Elizabeth, Knopf, 1991.
Stanley, Diane, Good Queen Bess: The Story of Elizabeth I of England, Four Winds Press, 1990.
Williams, Neville, The Life and Times of Elizabeth I, Cross River Press, 1992.

Source: U·X·L® Biographies, U·X·L, 1996.